Saturday, August 31, 2019

Is the Law Fault Based?

A2 AQA LAW Is the law fault based? According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Fault is defined as â€Å"error† or â€Å"blame†, the wrongdoing and extent of which the defendant is responsible for his actions. The law should only punish those who are at fault and impose punishments which are deserved, whilst being more lenient to those who are not at fault and did not foresee the consequences. In criminal law, fault is proven by the prosecution where people are found guilty, beyond reasonable doubt. In civil law, people are found liable, on a balance of probability.In order to discuss and evaluate the definition of fault as a basis of crime, it must first be understood and identified where fault can exist. Offences in law are often graded accordingly depending on how much fault they reflect. E. g. indictable offences such as rape and murder are the most serious of crimes and therefore receive the mandatory life sentence in order to reflect this. They cause the most seri ous damage to the victim and require more intention. However, summary offences such as â€Å"common† assault only receive minimal prison sentences, but normally fines up to ? 000. This is because the fault is deemed far less as the victim does not suffer as much and there is less intention to commit such a crime. Sentences also reflect to what extent the defendant was at fault. Aggravated factors, like a racially motivated attack or using a weapon indicates a higher level of intention and fault whilst mitigating factors like pleading guilty somewhat lessens the defendants fault in the eyes of the law. The severity of the crime depends on the level of fault. This can be found in the actus reus of a crime- the guilty physical act.Murder, for example is a voluntary act which demonstrates a higher degree of fault and blame (Smith- where a solider stabbed another solider with a bayonet. ) A voluntary act is normally a deliberate act and therefore seems fair to greater level of bla me. An omission is defined as the failure to act and shows a lower amount of fault as there is no physical act. For example, in the case of R v Dytham, a policeman witnessed a fight take place, but did not stop it and the victim was seriously injured. An ordinary passerby would not be regarded as at fault in this way but because a police officer has a public duty, he was deemed at greater fault.Causation is another aspect which is very fault-based in both criminal and civil law. There are tests to prove causation: factual, the â€Å"but for† test- But for defendant’s actions, would the outcome still be the same? legal causation- was the defendants actions the substantial and operating cause in victims injuries? and novus actus intervenes- was there a break in causation? Was there other factors that could of contributed? So if the defendant did cause the injury suffered by the victim then the defendant should be held at fault, vise versa if the defendant did not cause t he injury then he is not at fault.In Jordan, the defendant had shot the victim however the victim was completely recovered in hospital when he received a wrong injection which killed him. The defendant did not cause the death of the victim as the hospital treatment was an intervening factor and the substantial cause of death, therefore not fault. In comparison, in R v Smith, a solider was stabbed and was in hospital when he died from loss of blood from the stab wound. Unlike Jordan, Smith was found guilty of causing the defendants death as it was the original stab wound which was the operating cause of death proving he was at fault.Fault can also be shown through mens rea- the guilty mind. There are specific intent crimes such as murder or GBH s. 18, which can only be committed intentionally, where it was the defendant’s main aim or purpose indicating a higher level of fault. On the other hand, crimes of a less serious nature can be committed either intentionally or recklessl y- basic intent crimes like assault or battery. Recklessness shows less fault and blame than intention (although some fault is given due to subjective recklessness e. g.Cunningham- the defendant realises there is a risk of harm but acts anyway) because the outcome is only a possibility and sometimes is not foreseen. Similarly, Gross negligence manslaughter depicts how civil negligence can become criminal liability as a result of a death. This offence allows businesses to be liable and found at fault even though it is impossible to prove their mens rea. The use of defences in the legal system can also indicate how the defendant may possess both the actus reus and mens rea of a crime, but still not completely at fault.Insanity is a full defence which means the defendant is unable to form the mens rea of the crime in question due to a disease of the mind. Also, Automatism removes all fault on the defendants behalf as he is suffering from an external factor or influence. Intoxication (o nly applicable to specific intent crimes) shows an appropriate mens rea could not be formed due to the use of drink or drugs. However, other defences such as Diminished responsibility used as a defence in murder situations, only partially removes the defendants fault as he is suffering with an abnormality of the mind.This shows fault is lower than that of an intentional killing. Certain areas of criminal law where there are offences do not require any fault to be proved such as speeding offences. These are called strict liability crimes, where no mens rea is needed just the pure act of doing it makes you guilty whether you intended to or not. These offences are imposed throughout society in order to uphold social policies, but some people feel that no fault offences are unfair because they impose liability on people who did not necessary foresee any consequences. In Shah v DPP, a lottery ticket was sold to a member of the public under the age of 16.Although there were many signs and notices about checking ID of those looking underage, the ticket was still sold and the defendant was found guilty. This case had led to a requirement for an evaluation of the need for fault, as Shah, could be seen as not at fault as the child had used fake identity. These no-fault arguments are based on the public’s interest that it is better to protect the innocent public and compensate them than to prove an individuals fault, applicable for businesses that have to accept the risks and benefits of funning a company.Smedleys v Breed, a manufacturer defendant who was found guilty when a caterpillar was found in a tin of peas, where it is obvious that it was this manufacturers fault and responsibility to take blame. On the other hand, this can encourage higher standards amongst employers to encourage them to know the law and avoid injury and take care of themselves. It is believed that we should be accountable for our own actions, no matter whether fault can be proved or not- based on the principle â€Å"we reap what we sow†.This is was shown in R v Howells where the defendant failed to obtain a certificate for the gun he was possessing unwittingly, but will still guilty of this offence. Another argument is that imposing strict liability crimes helps that of deterrence on society to encourage better diligence. However, despite these no-fault arguments, many people believe there is a necessity for a proof of fault. Fairness is at the heart of the legal system and would seem unfair not to require a person to be proven at fault in order for them to be guilty.Having a no-fault system was implicate distrust for the public and would reflect poor values of society. It would also result in serious consequences for the sentenced defendant with a conviction. In conclusion, it has become clear that proving fault is already an essential element of criminal liability in the English legal system already and no fault only exists in a small number of offences, bu t can still have serious repercussions. In order for justice to continue to be served, criminal offences and their combined penalty should be limited to those who are evidently guilty and at fault and who truly deserve the punishments.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Death in Cross Cultural Perspectives Essay

There are different mourning ceremonies, traditions, and behaviors to express grief, but the concept of permanent loss remains unchanged in cross cultural setting. With this paper I will identify cross-cultural perspectives on death and dying, and will analyze multiple beliefs relating to death phenomenon. Furthermore I will identify different cultural mourning ceremonies and will analyze their impact on grieving process and coping mechanisms. Death is a universal phenomenon, but individual responses to death vary widely from culture to culture. In effort to explain the concept of death, many different cultures bring a significant symbolic meaning to the dying process in terms of rituals, ceremonies, and bereavement practices. Grieving and funeral rituals vary greatly across cultures and, in most cases, are associated with religious practices and beliefs. People tend to look at the death phenomena through the scope of their religious beliefs and often relate their personal experiences with death to cultural norms and traditions. Our culture affects the length of grieving process, mourning ceremonies, and even influence the way we cry during funerals. The mystery of death is often associated with fear and anxiety, thus it is easier for people to relate indefinite death concept to something that makes sense and brings comfort. Death in Latino culture According to Lobar, Youngblut and Brooten (2006), Latino death rituals are heavily influenced by religion, especially Catholicism, which underlines an importance of connection between the living and a deceased person, through prayer. Death is not something the majority of Hispanics fear, because many of them perceive death as a journey. The dying process is closely related to religious practices, such as prayers, hearing the confession of the dying, communion, and a blessing. Ongoing support is essential element of dying and grieving process, and in this particular culture it is unacceptable to let people die alone. The loyalty to a dying person and care that ill person receives during the last journey is very prominent in Latino culture. Death concept in Hispanic culture is closely related to family obligations, which is evident by the care that Hispanic family renders to a dying person during last moments. After death occurs, the family still prefers to stay with the body during burial preparation to pray and to watch over the body. Prior funeral a wake is held, which is a very social event where an extended family has a chance to get together, serve food and drinks, and enjoy each others’ company. Candles and flowers are essential decorating attributes of wakes and funerals. A funeral follows a wake, and during funeral family has a chance to say last goodbyes to their loved one. Emotional expression of grief is important attribute of Latino cultures which is often evident during funeral ceremonies where women cry loudly and use their body language openly. It is not unusual to put personal items into the casket with the person who has passed away for their journey in the afterlife, which also serves as an example of a finial gift from a family (Lobar, Youngblut & Brooten, 2006). Burial follow a funeral, because majority of Hispanics oppose cremation, which is also related to their religious beliefs and importance of placing a body in the ground. Most Hispanics believe that someday the dead will arise and return to life, which significantly influences their burial preferences. It is crucial for Hispanics to be buried next to other family members to keep them company and to arise together someday (Lobar, Youngblut & Brooten, 2006). Spiritual connection with the dead is also one of the important elements of Latino culture, which is demonstrated by frequent gravesite visits and praying to spirits. Death is always associated with separation, which leads to sorrow, and grief; however cultural perceptions and beliefs help to look at death from a different perspective and perceive death as a natural state that can be approached with love, respect, dignity, and tremendous family support. Latino culture supports their dying people during the last journey, and believes in afterlife, which gives them hope and helps to overcome unbearable grief of permanent loss. Death rituals in Africa African culture demonstrates a strong connection with deceased person, and believes that only a correct burial will bring a dead person peace. People n Africa strongly believe in spiritual life, thus their main goal during burial ceremonies is to address a spirit of a deceased person. An African funeral begins with removal of the body from home, which is done through a previously made hole in the wall of the home. Africans remove a dead body through the hole, instead of a door, to confuse a spirit and m ake sure that a spirit of a deceased person will not return back home, as a hole in the wall is immediately closed after removal of the body. In effort to confuse a spirit even more, they place thorns and sticks in a zigzag pattern along the way as body being taken to the place of burial. Blackely et al, 1994). In the religions of Africa, life does not end with death and people tend to believe in power of the dead, thus many families often pray to spirits and ask them not to come back and cause any trouble. Death is perceived as the beginning of connection with visible and invisible worlds. One of the funeral rituals include special preparation of a home, such as smearing windows with ashes and turning pictures and other reflective objects face down to ensure that deceased person is detached from a living, and to promote smooth transition into different world. The beds are usually removed from deceased’s bedroom and mourning women sit on a floor or a mattress. According to African culture, if correct funeral is not observed, a dead person may come back and bother the living. The funeral preparation takes approximately from seven to thirteen days, which gives the community members a chance to visit and give the last respect to a deceased (Mbiti, 1969). The funeral ceremony usually begins before the sunrise, because people believe that bad spirits usually sleep early in the morning. The pastoral care during funeral preparation is very important for comfort and encouragement. According to Blackely et al (1994), African funerals simultaneously mourn for the dead and celebrate life. An animal is usually killed during funerals to avoid bad luck, but it also has a practical purpose, such as providing food for family and neighbors. In many communities women and unmarried adults are not allowed to attend funerals, as well as close family members are not allowed to speak or take any vocal part in the funeral ceremony. The community involvement during African funerals is a great example of psychosocial and emotional support during mourning process, which draws people together and promotes healthy grief. Jewish rituals There are many different beliefs in Judaism, thus funeral rituals and ceremonies vary greatly. According to Jewish laws, practices, and beliefs, a soul returns to heaven immediately after death, thus the body has to be buried as soon as possible, usually within 24 to 48 hours (Lobar, Youngblut & Brooten, 2006). Mourners show their grief by wearing a black ribbon and by performing only minimal grooming and bathing. Mirrors or other reflective objects may be covered and family remains with a deceased and talks about a deceased. Prayers, citations of Psalms and learned passages from the Talmud are essential elements of the Jewish funerals (Ribner, 1998). According to Clements et al (2003), a body should be treated with respect due to belief that it is a temple of a soul. There is a special ritual of body preparation, where women prepare a female body and men are responsible for preparing a male body. All jewelry must be removed from the body, and the body is washed twice, and is treated almost if it was still alive. The prepared body is laid on the floor with candles around it, and the body is never left alone. There is no embalming and the body is clothed or wrapped and put into wooden coffin, so the body and the box can return entirely to earth. Traditional Jewish funerals are symbolic representations of spiritual connection with God. The funeral ceremonies are based on purity, simplicity and dignity. According to Jewish tradition, wealthy and poor are equal before God, thus the body must be buried in the same type of garment regardless of financial and social status. According to Jewish religion, death is only a part of a process, and after death a soul continues on. Jewish people believe in afterlife, which gives them hope and helps to deal with grief. The importance of family is recognized throughout Jewish mourning ceremonies, which value family privacy during first seven days of mourning process, where close family gets together and have a meal of condolence that include eggs and bread. According to the belief, eggs symbolize life, which is a great example of attitude towards death and strong belief in afterlife (Madsen, 1999). Cross cultural perspective Death is a universal phenomenon, but funerals ceremonies and rituals vary greatly across cultures and religions. Many cultural groups carry their own beliefs and perceptions, which help them with the grieving process and adaptations strategies. Death carries a feeling of a permanent loss, which is very difficult for people to accept. According to Kastenbaum (2007), bereavement is a universal experience, which carries many painful responses, including depression, distress, fear, and misery. Our inner state feelings are universal, however or external expressions are different. Our culture and religious beliefs are essential elements of adaptation strategies and coping techniques. Believing in afterlife in Christianity, Judaism, and many other religious groups gives people hope, helps to alleviate grief, and promotes healthy adaptation process. Strong extended family support during mourning process helps to share unbearable grief among family members and serves as an excellent source of encouragement. Strong community involvement is extremely beneficial during bereavement, which helps to take care of financial struggles and provides psychosocial support. Cross cultural rituals help people express their grief according to their beliefs. Almost every funeral ceremony is family oriented, which is designed to bring extended family together, to celebrate life, and to set the background for healthy grief. There are many similarities and differences in beliefs and practices on death and dying. But for many cultures and religious groups a funeral is a final act of love, respect, devotion, and family gathering.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Empirical Formula of Magnesium Oxide Lab Report

Empirical Formula of Magnesium Oxide - Lab Report Example Gravimetric analysis the use of mass measurement to determine the amount of the analyte.   Magnesium is a highly reactive metal, which is why it should be solid (Erdey, et al., 2013). It is paramount to limit the amount of oxygen to reduce the rate of reaction (Zumdahl & DeCoste, 2013). The use of magnesium strips ensures the whole surface of the metal is exposed to oxygen. A gravimetric analysis demands a step by step of measurement of mass before and after the reaction. The magnesium is weighed before the reaction and the final product after the reaction is also weighed. The weighing helps in determining the exact mass of oxygen that combines with Magnesium in the reaction.   Since both Magnesium (Mg2+) and Oxygen (O2-) have a valency of 2 the reaction will go as follows.Magnesium will react with Oxygen in 1:1 ratio. The resulting product should be white (Zumdahl & DeCoste, 2013).   Also, Magnesium will react with Nitrogen to produce a black substance. It is because Magnesium is a highly reactive metal. Health and Safety Tips:†¢Ã‚  Magnesium is highly flammable, which means it can easily burst into flames. Therefore, it is imperative to keep one’s eye very far from the crucible during the experiment.   In addition, Magnesium has a blinding glare when it burns, which is very harmful to the eyes. The ignition of the Magnesium can be prevented by closing the lid. †¢Ã‚  The Bunsen burner will produce so much heat during the experiment. One should keep a considerably safe distance from the Bunsen burner.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Business ethics individual written report Essay

Business ethics individual written report - Essay Example Without revenues, the companies, especially Nestle Company, will be forced to close shop. Closing up equates to filing a bankruptcy proceeding in the courts of law. The company complies with all health ethics and other community ethics standards. Likewise, Nestle Company does not reduce its current zeal to propagate the importance of implementing the ethical standard with the company’s territorial boundaries. The company sells products that will aid in the enhancement of the current and future customers’ health. The company also accepts and adheres to the current and future customers’ rights to receive valid and relevant information that will lead to the increased safety of all parties concerned. The parties include all stakeholders of the Nestle Company. The stakeholders include the customers of Nestle Company. The stakeholders include the managers of Nestle Company. The stakeholders include the company’s investors. The stakeholders include the Nestle Com pany’s creditors. The stakeholders should also include the current and future customers. Without the customers, the Nestle Company may not be able to generate as much sales as when there was an abundance of current and future customers (Stevens, 2009). In one situation, the customers were disheartened by the unfavourable side effects of patronising the Nestle products. Consequently, the company must not prioritise increasing revenues alone, at the expense of the customers’ sufferings. Nestle Company complies with the ethical standards of the community. The company’s milk and other food products contribute significantly to healthy individuals. The main goal of the company is to produce product that meet the current and future customers’ desire to become healthy (Stevens, 2009). By taking the Nestle products, the current and future customers will have better health conditions. With the Nestle products being distributed to the public, more people are able to buy the hard to find Nestle food products. Consequently, the Nestle Company’s 2008 financial reports indicate that the company was able to generate an estimated three percent growth rate. Further, the favourable growth rate occurred when the company sold products in the global health market segment. The same favourable growth rate arose when the company sold its popular branded products in the global wellness market segment. Likewise, the Nestle Company created an innovation of the marketing activities within the factory production process in order to maximize net profits. The company’s capacity to effectively respond to any external and internal factors of business threats can be easily rehabilitated. The Nestle Company’s marketing strategy includes the ethical selling of added value Nestle products (Stevens, 2009). Further, Nestle places primary importance on incorporation of business ethics. For example, Nestle was instrumental in the implementation of ethic al standards. During the 1970s, Nestle introduced business ethics in the marketing and distribution of infant formula. The Nestle’s implementation of ethical standards was done during the selling of the infant milk formula in the third world market segments (Boyd, 2012). During the same time period, the Nestle Company spearheaded the boycott of milk food and other related products branded as established violating business ethics policies. During the Nestle boycott of ethically wanting food products, Nestle recommended the filing of charges

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Factors Used to Measure the Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Factors Used to Measure the Economy - Essay Example The essay "Factors Used to Measure the Economy" talks about such economic factors as the GDP, employment levels, inflation levels and the interest rates and tries to identify which of them is the best for this purpose. The GDP of a country is taken to be the value of all goods and services that are provided within the economic system. It can also be the total value which is added to a product at every stage of production whether the final product is a good or a service. It is measured on a period to period basis, therefore, it allows for easy comparisons to show how the economy has grown or shrunk over time. If the GDP of the United States grows from 10 trillion dollars to 11 trillion dollars in real terms over a one year period then it can be said that the American economy itself has grown by a trillion dollars in one year. Inflation level and interest rates are often connected with each other since both of them are dealing with the level of money which is being supplied to the economy. They are also popular in the media since they connect deeply with people’s abilities to borrow money and their money purchasing more goods and services (inflation). Interest rates refer to the cost of borrowing money which can be controlled by the government to slow down the economy if it appears to be overhearing or to increase economic output if the economy seems to be slowing down. Increasing inflation often means that prices are rising and unless wages keep up with rising prices, the standard of life for individuals is bound to go down.

Monday, August 26, 2019

Proposing a Solution on Texting While Driving Essay

Proposing a Solution on Texting While Driving - Essay Example period. In other words, it amounts to something like a driver covering a length of football field at a speed of 55 mph without looking at the road. In another study carried out in 2008 it has been mentioned that over 800,000 Americans were texting or making calls, during the same year over 6,000 Americans were killed because of distracted driving and cell phone usage is one of the major reasons. Considering the extent of loss to the life that cell phone usage, specifically texting, there has been a Federal ban on texting while driving for commercial vehicle drivers. The defaulters may be subject to fines up to USD 2,750. But even after this ban the scene has not changed significantly. In order to propose a solution to address the issue of texting while driving it may be meaningful to understand the cause that leads the drivers to text. One of the national insurance agencies in America conducted a survey of over 1500 drives, nationwide. As per the findings of the survey, the key reaso n for people to use cell phones while driving is (Deleon) â€Å"social etiquette† demands that people be in constant contact with each other, so people feel pressured to responds immediately to text messages and phone calls.† This issue may be very difficult to be addressed comprehensively by adopting just one solution. Such issues can be addressed by two types of solutions, these are i) technology based solutions and ii) by bringing about a behavioral change in the actors concerned, in this particular case drivers are the key actors. In this paper, I would like to propose a solution that aims at kindling a behavioral change in the drivers. The justification for adopting such an approach is centered on the reason for which the people get urged for texting. The key audience in this proposal is the policy makers and society in general who are usually the drivers of social and behavioral change amongst people. If the audience, as I would propose in the next section, adopts the behavioral change strategies, I believe that there would be a considerable improvement in the statistics pertaining to texting while driving. It is also important to note that the proposal that I present is even though relevant for all drivers, but has specific benefits for commercial vehicle drivers. These are the ones exposed to high risks. The proposal is presented in the table below: Strategies of principle In order to induce a behavioral change amongst commercial drivers, I propose that the telecom companies should mandatorily send Statutory Warning about the dangers of texting while driving (TWD) before each text they send such as â€Å"TWD multiplies the risk of crash incidents by 23 times.† or â€Å"You might not be able to see the person whom you text if you text while driving.† Similar warnings may also be placed on strategic places inside the car. It is the job of the policy makers to ensure that each cellphone operators comply with this regulation. Con sequences of actions The consequences of this solution are anticipated to be: Subconscious learning by every cell user about the fallouts of TWD Advocate and Amplify the cause and risks of TWD Fall in the number of TWD accidents Analogies Advertisers, social marketers and policy makers have successfully applied Statutory Warnings in order to modify behaviors with respect to other unhealthy habits such as smoking, HIV/AIDS, toys using LASERS etc. Texting while driving is already being seen as a one of the unbending issue for all

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Change management - ITIL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Change management - ITIL - Essay Example ITIL or IT Infrastructural Library is an approach of best practices that adds value to the existing mechanisms of internal control and external exigencies like optimization of customer service and help foster vital linkages with business partners. ABC needs this approach broadly for the following reasons: ABC is a business proposition that is focused on the needs of the customers. It constantly needs to be aware of their fast transforming preferences so that it can meet their demands. ITIL would considerably contribute to meeting the challenges of customers’ changing requirements. The IT system is intrinsic part of organizational operations that not only integrates various units but also enhances it operational and administrative productivity and outcome. Thus unapproved changes within the system jeopardize the working and adversely impact on the performance of individuals who may be unaware of the changes and may lack the technical expertise to adapt to the changes without appropriate training on new system. Nutt (1990) believes that delivery of IT services is best served through flexible approach that incorporates the environmental changes and promotes development of goods and services to meet the requirements of customers. With ITIL, ABC would be constantly updated and will be able to apply innovative input to its product and services. Last but not the least important is the fact that ITIL would provide wide scope of improved performance at all levels of managerial and operational efficiency delivered by IT system throughout its lifecycle (Stainberg,

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Education - Diversity and Inclusion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Education - Diversity and Inclusion - Essay Example Developing a deeper understanding of how inclusion can develop with the growth of diversity and cultures then becomes an essential component for teachers that are working within the classroom. The personal relationship to diversity and inclusion is one which becomes complex because of the different perspectives which I relate to. The perspective as a student is one which is based on the cultural identity which I carry into the classroom. Each student comes from a different background, holds values and beliefs in place and creates specific attitudes and behaviors toward this. However, another individual, specifically those not from the locality, carry a different set of ideologies because of the cultural relationship which is presented. The relationships and dynamics which are created are complex in relation to the social development as well as the ability to teach the same subject matter to students that are at different levels of understanding. In my experience, this has created gap s in learning, specifically because no one is learning at the same pace or with the same approach to learning. More important, there is sometimes not the ability to develop the correct perspectives and associations with those that are in the classroom because of the cultural definitions and understanding. As a student, this has led to personal gaps in learning as well as times when it seemed as though the teacher was approaching only those which did not understand the subject matter. The problems associated with the perspective which I held as a student are linked directly to the questioning of what the definition of diversity and inclusion relates to. Currently, the policies and formulas for teaching in the classroom are to treat each student equally while giving students the same opportunities and information for success. However, the equality which is associated with teaching does not take into account the

Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Research Methods - Essay Example Twin studies are particularly suited to separate the environmental and genetic backgrounds of an abundance of traits such as intelligence, schizophrenia and alcohol dependence (Winerman 2004). In trying to determine whether genetics plays a role in intelligence both intelligence quotient (IQ) test and MRI Scans. The brains of about ten identical twins and ten fraternal twins could be scanned. Since identical twins have identical genes, tests for correlation should show close to 100% for identical twins while tests for and fraternal twins would show correlation closer to 50% since they are not likely to have identical genes. In terms of schizophrenia a number of identical twins are tested for the disease. If both identical twins carry the disease they are concordant. If they do not then they are discordant. The rate of concordance determines whether the disease is hereditary Schizophrenia.com (n.d.). According to About.com (n.d.), in terms of alcoholism twin studies would compare the incidence of alcoholism of identical twins with that in fraternal twins. If there is any genetic component in the risk of alcoholism then identical twins with identical genes are be expected to show similar histories of either developing alcoholism or not developing alcoholism. Fraternal twins, on the other hand, who are genetically different individuals, are more likely to differ in their tendencies as it relates to alcoholism. Motluk, A (2001). IQ is Inherited, suggests twin study. News Scientist: 5th Nov 2001. Retrieved: http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn1520-iq-is-inherited-suggests-twin-study.html Last accessed 31st Mar

Friday, August 23, 2019

The Impacts of Technological Innovation on Communication Essay

The Impacts of Technological Innovation on Communication - Essay Example Nevertheless, in cases where physical contact is impossible, an effort of writing a letter can be resorted. However, in the latter eras, because of human discontent for development, several crafts have been developed including technology. The rapid innovation on information technology has greatly impacted the way communication process go. There had been an overwhelming revamp on the communication process especially on the matter of how it is being done. The internet which is a very powerful tool in conveying information is arguably the greatest human invention there is. In schools, business establishments, commercial televisions, broadcast news centers, hospitals, etc., technology has become a very important tool in order to hasten the communication process and the delivery of data to which they are supposed to be delivered. In fact, in some schools, just like in South Korea, they are using I.T. application software and programs in order to communicate with 2 English language tutors from the Philippines, United States, and the United Kingdom. In businesses, more appropriately for bigger multi-national companies, especially those that are outsourcing some of their jobs overseas, they use web conferencing tools in order to perform the desired task. In addition, social networking sites, electronic mails, video chat, and live conferencing are also available. One of the best things that technology has contributed to communication is its contribution for faster and more convenient way of dealing with the transfer of information. What are the good impacts of technology to communication? More than just a mere observation, we can all concede that the transmission of information nowadays, with the aid of information technology, is much more accurate, speedy and convenient as compared to what has been used before. These can be proven by our personal experiences. Before the telephone or the mobile communication devices have been invented, the transfer of information was ve ry slow. Now, we can simply communicate remotely by just simply dialling numbers and this is regardless of the distance as long as necessary requirements are met just like the signal and load for mobile phones. In education, a relevant research found out that online discussion is discovered as an effective tool in developing the student’s knowledge. This is because of a consolidated conversation or exchanges of idea through a forum just like the college confidential – an online forum for pre-college and college students which intends to discuss different topics related to education, science, and most especially for the admission process. Similarly, with the help of information technology, there is a chance for the people to get in touch with their loved ones who are situated from a remote location. Most of the 3 time, video chats and social networking sites are the players of the game. People can just sit down with their computers facing toward them and they can commun icate with the people that they want to talk with. What are the drawbacks of information technology on communication? Albeit, we have already conceded that technology is a helpful tool in achieving a faster communication process; nevertheless, it has also its own disadvantages. Most of the people who use computers and internet

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Psychology Cae Studies Essay Example for Free

Psychology Cae Studies Essay 1) Newspaper Advertisement: -self selecting persons who had an interest in seeing the study become successful. If you volunteer to become a part of a study clearly you have an interest and feel a sense of responsibility towards the experiment.  2) Subjects were predominately white and middle class. This implies that the subjects are from similar backgrounds, and so share similar experiences. In such cases we call them a homogeneous group. A homogeneous group because of their similar experiences are not likely to be representative of the wider population. Consequently results are likely to reflective of them, not the general population. In this instance we may only have learn how a prison population with predominately white males from a middle class background is likely to behave. Remember the purpose of much of research is to generalise to the wider population. 3) Thumbs up for the use of questionnaires and an interview, which were used to screen the subjects.  Thumbs down what constituted healthy? How did they come to this judgement? Normal! What is normal?  4) The experiment was conducted at the prestigious Stanford University. The  Prestige of the University will have impacted upon the subjects. Oh my god we are here at Stanford. If Stanford is doing this then it must be good and worthwhile. They wouldnt have me doing something thats not good for me. No matter what I feel I must behave as a dutiful subject. Its not hard to imagine the subjects thinking in this manner. 5) The direct involvement of the chief researcher as a participant in the  Experiment could also impact upon the subjects. Hey hes involved, if he isnt having a problem neither should I. I need to follow his lead. This is a really valuable piece of research.  Key Terms  De-Individuation: -This is a loss of your individual identity. The guards lost their identity to the group collective. We are guards. The (uniform), inclusive of baton, reflecting sunglasses and apparel (what they had on) contributed to this. We are the authority! What we say goes! The prisoners lost their identity when they were given prison garb and prison numbers. To be referred to only by a number robs you of your name. How vital is a name to an individual? Mr, Miss, Mrs, name only. It comes to define you the individual. Without it who are you? De-humanisation: This means that you have lost your humanity and are not treated with the basic dignity to which human beings are entitled. The prisons were de-humanised. Remember they were stripped and made to stand naked in the court -yard. This is not a dignified way to treat persons. Further evidence of their dehumanisation is the prison guards referring to their rights as privileges. This implied that they were not entitled to rights. Loss of control over what we as humans have come to expect, when we eat, when we sleep, and when use the bathroom. They lost the power to do all these things. Learned helplessness: They became dependent upon the guards for everything. They lost the desire and the know how to do things for themselves. This was not the situation before since they acquired it in prison, then it is learned helplessness.  Remember power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely.  Role Confusion: This occurs when the individual cannot separate roles that he has been given-which am I truly? This is linked to role consumption, This occurs when one particular role comes to define an individual take for example an athlete or politician who refuses to retire long after they have passed their prime. Both the guards and the prisoners suffered from this problem. The guards like the prisoners suffered de-individuation. They too lost their identities to the roles they were asked to perform. The awesome power they were given, the uniform-inclusive of whistle, baton and reflecting sunglasses all contributed to them losing their identity. They began to see themselves as guards only and begun acting accordingly. Most naturally this meant that the guards internalised the prison. By Internalisation we mean that they accepted the prison as being real, and conformed to its expectations, routines and guidelines. Did the guards truly internalise the prison? Lets look at the evidence of this-The guards attempted to hide the prisons in the broom cupboard because they felt the experimenters were being too soft- [This is evidence of internalisation because it shows that the guards had removed themselves from the confines/boundaries of the experiment and had now started to think as the collective group-prison guards-[This moment should have marked the end of the experiment as its integrity had been compromised-it was an ethical violation to continue-Zimbardo being a part of the experiment(Prison Warder-head guard) became totally subjective and could not see that anything was wrong-this again was unethical but only because his objectivity was compromised].  Further evidence of this is calling the prisoners rights privileges, and delaying the prisoner roll call to hours. For the prisoners the arresting process, which began when they were arrested and ended when they were finger printed and photographed, contributed to the prisoners internalising the prison. This occurred because of the shock value it signified a break from the prison (subjects) everyday reality they were arrested-they were now prisoners. The initiation process, which is everything, which happened to the prison subjects up until they were assigned to their cells, also contributed to their internalising the prison. This included being given prison uniforms, being stripped and deloused, being made to stand naked in the prison yard, being assigned numbers, learning the prison rules -which they had to recite and being assigned cells. Evidence of the internalisation of the prison by the prisoners is them referring to themselves by number, asking for a lawyer, bail and parole board, and returning to their cells when they could have just left.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Study Of Direct Subsidy Scheme

Study Of Direct Subsidy Scheme In 1988, the Education Commission Report No.3 proposed the Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS). The first DSS scheme was set up in 1991. The scheme aimed at developing a strong private school sector by providing high quality schools other than government and aided schools and to give parents a greater choice in looking for suitable schools for their children. So, what is Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS)? It is a means to enhance the quality of private schools in Hong Kong at the primary and secondary level (Education Commission Report No.3 June 1988). Non-governmental secondary schools which are attained a sufficiently high educational standard to join the DSS by providing subsidies in order to enhance the quality of private school education since the 1991-92 school year. The government set up the Direct Subsidy Scheme in primary and secondary education in Hong Kong with three rationales. The first one is to set up a qualified private education provision sector. The scheme allows DSS schools to charge tuition fees on their own willingness. Some schools may charge higher tuition fees, so that they purchase better equipment and have extra resources. As a result, the DSS schools can improve their teaching qualities. Besides, the schools under DSS can operate with greater autonomy. The schools can recruit more teachers so that the teacher to students ratio can be lower. Then, students can learn better. Another rationale is that DSS allows more diversity in different schools as there is less restriction and schools can freely decide on their own to operate. For example, schools can design the curricula, school tuition fees and selection criteria. Schools can also tailor made their syllabus to meet the interest and abilities of their students. As a result, our education system will be more diverse and more schools with different styles and specialties would exist. The third rationale is to increase the variety of choices for parents and students. As schools can identify their own strengths specialties (as the above mentioned), there will be more options (different types of schools) for parents to choose. Choices can be made based on the needs and interests of the children and it will be beneficial to the students. Schools joining Direct Subsidy Scheme is quite different from those government schools, aided schools and private schools. Here are three features of the Direct Subsidy scheme. The first one is that the scheme allowed the school to charge tuition fees. The government has little control over the tuition fees levels. For instance, the tuition fees is $28,000 per annum for Diocesan Boys College Form one students while the tuition fees is $48,000 per annum for St. Pauls Co-educational College Form one students. The second feature of the scheme is that the DSS schools can receive subsidies, which depend on the numbers of students enrolled in the schools, from the government. The schools are free to spend their grants for educational purpose. Enjoying high autonomy is another feature of the Direct Subsidy Scheme. Schools joining the scheme can have their own selection criteria and selection processes. It means that the selection processes is regardless districts, which is different from the centrally allocated system. Another aspect of autonomy that the DSS schools can enjoy is that they are free to design the syllabus and curriculum. Take Diocesan Boys School as an example, it adopts International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP) for overseas study. After setting up the Direct Subsidy Scheme in Hong Kong, how is the scheme affecting the primary and secondary education? Now, there are 83 schools (including 62 secondary schools and 21 primary schools) in total joining the Direct Subsidy scheme. DSS schools now account for more than 6% of secondary schools and 1.2% of primary school. Although the ratio seems to be relatively low, there is a trend to increase in the future. It especially refers to some elite schools with prestigious reputation such as the St. Paul Co- educational School and the Diocesan Boys School. It is because joining the Direct Subsidy Scheme, schools can acquire extra resources and autonomy for their future development and teaching visions. For the well-perceived schools, they can take advantages out of the scheme and able to improve their teaching and learning experience. They can organize more enrichment programs such as overseas tours, cultural trips and outdoor learning activities with the extra funding and freedom gain. The schools can also hire extra teachers and assistants. As a result, the schools can make their teaching process more effective and reduce the working pressure of teachers. Take St. Paul Co- educational School as an example, it employed 10 more teachers into its own teaching team (with 108 teachers). However, in normal government- aided schools, there are only 60 to 70 teachers. For some less famous schools, they can better cater the special needs of their original students, have new sources of applicants and featuring their custom curricula and syllabus. They tend to have students from South-Asian, New immigrants from Mainland China and under-performed in terms of academic studies. And their school fees are generally more affordable compare with those elite schools joining DSS. The general effect is that there is a trend for both secondary schools and primary schools in Hong Kong to turn to DSS schools in the future. As the above mentioned, it is believed that there will be more and more schools joining the Direct Subsidy Scheme in the future. So, the scheme must have its pros to attract those schools to join in. Let us first analyze the pros of the scheme from schools view. Being a DSS schools, schools can enjoy high autonomy. Schools are free to decide their own school fees, curriculum and student admission policies. AS schools can set their own selection criteria, they can control the standards of their students. Some schools will even establish their own cultures and styles. For example, La Salle College has its own spirit The Lasallian Spirit: Faith and Zeal. Besides, DSS schools can also get more operating funds by charging higher school fees and receiving government subsidies. As a result, schools can have abundant funds to provide additional and better quality facilities. From the view of parents and students, the advantages of the Direct Subsidy Scheme are that the DSS schools have high teaching quality, so it can enhance students with good learning experience. Besides, as DSS schools usually offer small- group teaching for major subjects, so that the students-teachers ratio will be lower. Then, teachers may have a better teaching and caring on each student. So, students can benefit from a better learning environment. From teachers view, working in a DSS school, they will be benefit from a lighter workload. As DSS schools usually employ more teachers and offer small- group teaching for major subjects, the students-teachers ratio will be lower. As a result, each teacher can then focus on fewer students. Besides, teacher may establish deeper relationship with students as teachers only need to focus small class of students. Therefore, the teachers- students relationships may become better. As every coin has two sides, everything has both positive and negative sides. Direct Subsidy Scheme also has some cons from the view of schools, students, parents and teachers. From schools view, they may worry that the schools competitiveness is weaken due to the higher school fees compare to other schools. Some families may not be able to afford the higher school fees. When the quality of a DDS school and a non- DSS school has no big different, those families will probably not consider DSS schools as a choice. Schools may also worry the risk of insufficient of students. As the government subsidies received by DDS schools depend on the numbers of students enrolled in the schools, so schools may need to face the problem of insufficient funds if there are not enough students. It may then lead to lacking of resources for facilities and continuous development. In the long term, the school may need to lower its admission requirement. Form the view of students and parents, there is inequality in school admission process. It is because students need to pay higher school tuition fees to enter DSS schools compare to those students enter non- DSS schools. School tuition fees may be a burden for some poor families, and these families may not be able to afford the higher school tuition fees. Apart from the admission process, unfairness may also occur in the educational process. As DSS schools usually have more funds for better facilities and resources, students study in DSS schools may enjoy better facilities and better learning environment. It may be not so fair to those non- DSS schools students. From the view of teachers, they may have worries of wage cuts. As DSS schools tend to employ more teachers, teachers salary will increase the expense of the schools. Some may worries that schools will have wage cuts in order to reduce the expense on teachers salary. Besides, as some parents are still not very familiar to the Direct Subsidy Scheme, teachers may have to spend extra time explaining the policy to parents. It may then increase the workload of teachers. After discussing both the pros and cons of the Direct Subsidy Scheme, I think that the cons of the Direct Subsidy Scheme far outweigh the pros. I oppose the scheme for these reasons. First of all, Direct Subsidy Scheme violates the spirit of Education for all walks of life. Education should treat all students equally but not select students by criteria such as family background or wealth. However, as DSS schools enjoy high autonomy and they can set their own selection criteria and admission process, many of the DSS schools tend to choose the elite students only and exclude those poor students from joining. For example, a student who has his father or brothers studied in the Diocesan Boys School will be added marks in the admission process of the Diocesan Boys School. The school tends to give advantage to the alumnis children. It is obvious that DSS schools are selecting students by their family background. It is unfair to the other students. It violates the principle of equal educational opportunities. Moreover, the scheme hinders the social mobility. The principle of equal educational opportunities suggest that students should be selected according their academic results instead of their family background or the ability of paying the schools tuition fees and even low- class students who have outstanding academic results can enter the universities and become middle class in the future. However, the Direct Subsidy Scheme violates this principle and hinders the social mobility. Poor students are restricted from entering the DSS schools. DSS schools lead to stratified society. On the other hand, Direct Subsidy Scheme leads to inequality in the educational system as DSS schools take both the advantages of aided schools and private school. DSS schools can receive the subsidies according to the numbers of students from the government, which is the advantage of aided schools. DSS schools can also enjoy a high autonomy on school curriculum, students selection and designing syllabus, which is the advantage of private schools. Apart from taking both the advantages of aided schools and private school, the DSS schools can also receives extra income from charging schools tuition fees. It is a kind of unfairness to the subsidy schools and private schools. In conclusion, Direct Subsidy Scheme was set up in purpose of providing high quality schools to give parents and students a greater choice in looking for suitable schools. After evaluation, it can be seen that there are both advantages and disadvantages of the scheme. The disadvantages of the scheme seem to outweigh the advantages. However, it is obvious that there is a trend for both secondary schools and primary schools in Hong Kong to turn to DSS schools in the future. While more and more schools become DSS schools, the effects of DSS bringing to Hong Kong education will be much more evident. To stop creating unfairness and hindering social mobility, the government should really think of some new policy to improve the Direct Subsidy Scheme to perfect the Hong Kong educational system.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Motivation Theory Literature Review

Motivation Theory Literature Review INTRODUCTION: Motivation is naturally conceptualized either as an desire arising from within the human being or as an impulse arising from within the organism or as an attraction arising from an object external to the individual. According to Baron (1991) defines motivation as the internal processes that activate, guide, and maintain behaviour especially goal-directed behaviour. Also (Kanfer, 1998) defines as free will element of behaviour and the psychological mechanism governing the direction, intensity, and persistence of action not due solely to individual differences in ability or overwhelming environmental demands that force action. Motivation has been defined as essential to adaptive functioning and quality of life (Marin Chakravorty, 2005), and as the content of the positive thinking one wishes to maintain towards the attainment of an objective (Schweingruber, 2006). According to (kanfer, 1990) states that challenges facing researchers into motivation is that it cannot be seen and most in dividual see is a multidimensional stream of behaviour and the products of those behaviours. Also states motivational processes can be inferred only from analysis of this continuing stream of behaviour that is determined both by environment and heredity and is observed through their effects on personality, belief, knowledge, abilities and skills. Besides that,(Herzberg,1987)describes movement as a function of fear of punishment or failure to get extrinsic rewards and motivation as a function of growth from getting intrinsic rewards out of interesting and challenging work. Motivation is to be intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is internal. Intrinsic motivation is obvious as the performance of an activity for its inborn satisfaction rather than for some detachable outcome. As soon as, intrinsically motivated, a person is stimulated to take action for the pleasurable or challenge entailed relatively than because of external products, pressures (Ryan et al 2000). It occurs wh en people are compelled to do something out of pleasure, importance, or desire. Extrinsic motivation occurs when external factors compel the person to do something. Extrinsic motivation is a pull together that pertains whenever an action is done in order to reach some detachable result. (Rayan et al. 2000).Motivation is the driving force within individuals that compels them physiologically and psychologically to pursue one or more goals to fulfil their needs or expectations. (Lam Tang, 2003, p. 61) From my understanding whatever the behaviour, the drive pushing or polling person to act in particular way is motivation and most researchers believe motivation as the drive behind human behaviour. Furthermore, people cannot be motivated to do something if there is nothing in it for them. Obviously, reward may be the avoidance of a negative outcome as much as it may be the achievement of a positive outcome. Motivation theory has to do with why do individual make the choices they make? or what makes someone persist at one activity and yet quickly give up another. Motivation is to give reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain behaviour. Motivation is present in every life function. Simple acts such as eating are motivated by hunger. Education is motivated by desire for knowledge. Motivation is a vital quality that pervades all aspects of teaching and learning. Motivated students display interest in activities, motivated teachers feel that they can help students learn and motivated administrators make possible teaching and learning in their buildings. Self-motivation is what most people use to define motivation at its highest mountain of accomplishments. If you are able to motivate yourself and reach your goals, you would have conquered the ability to be disciplined and will accomplish anything you put your mind to. Motivation is very important to all decisions that you have to make. In the workplace, motivation is defined by the actions that employees take to improve the company goals as well as their aspirations for career advancement. The effective performance of employees is what makes or breaks a company. So to keep employees motivated, employers must invest in the overall morale by implementing workshops and seminars to help them. Managers are the key personnel in what makes an employee follow directions. Using rewards like promotions and incentives as well as compliments can greatly improve an employees view of the company and its managers. Employees like to be recognized for their efforts regardless of the salary bracket. Such recognition keeps them motivated in getting their job done. Recognition in this case is the motivation technique that managers can tap into and gain the structure over the workplace environment of how they want things done. What organisation and managers can do is provide the environment, support and resources that will influence and effect motivation. Nowadays, managers are trying to find useful motivation theories to motivate their employees. While there are a wide variety of motivation theories on human motivation discussed in this literature review, which means that managers can use any or all those motivation theories to motivate their employees. Managers can use these motivation theories in ways that complement each other. MOTIVATION THEORY-MAJOR CONCEPTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS This is all about the main researchers of motivation theories and to illustrate how these theories can be apply to practical situation. Also reviewed how the major concepts and contributions can apply in work related situations and applying them in groups, teams at organisational level and individual level. Motivation is a complex concept and there are many different theories which look at the subject from different perspectives. The different theories of motivation and criticisms of the theories have been discussed as follows: 1: Hierarchy of needs theory by Maslow A.H. 2: Hygiene theory by Herzberg F. 3: X and Y theory by McGregor D.M. 4: Existence- Relatedness-Growth theory by Alderfer C. P. 5: Expectancy theory by Vroom V. 6: Goal-Setting Theory by Locke E.A. 7: Internal and External control theory by Rotter J.B. 8: Achievement theory by McClelland and Atkinson J.W. 9: Job characteristics theory by Hackman J.R. and Oldham G.R. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY: According to Maslow (1954) projected that motivation is based on a number of human need. It has to do with the hierarchy that requires the lower more basic needs to be satisfied before the increasingly less basic ones above. Maslow believed that there are five basic needs of the theory. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is one of the most famous motivation theories, and it has been the centre of much interest by management researchers (Katz, 2004). This (Fig.1) is Maslows hierarchy of needs in pyramid with physiological needs at the base, self-actualisation at the top. 5: Self- actualisation needs: Refer to personal growth and development. 4: Esteem or Ego needs: Refer to need for status and self respect. 3: Social needs: Refer to need to part of a social group and belongingness/love 2: Safety needs: Refer to security, need for shelter or physical danger. 1: Physiological needs: Refer to basic life needs, like food, drink, shelter, etc THE SELF ACTUALISATION NEED: Maslow defined self-actualization as the complete use and utilization of talents, capacities, potentialities. (Maslow,1954). Self-actualization is not a static state. It is an ongoing procedure in which ones capacities are fully, imaginatively, and cheerfully utilized. Self-actualizing people perceive life without a doubt and they are less emotional and more objective. ESTEEM OR EGO NEEDS: According to Maslow, esteem needs were made of two types of desire. I: Desire for strength, adequacy achievement, competence and confidence in the face of organisation. 2: Desire for reputation, glory dominance, recognition, appreciation and dignity Furthermore, people need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self- respect and respect. Self-Esteem expresses the normal human desire to be acknowledged and valued by others. This has to with ones internal needs for self-respect, autonomy and external needs for status and recognition. SOCIAL NEEDS: Are the third level of human needs from the (Fig 1) above. This has to do with ones needs for affection and a sense of belonging and acceptance. Human being need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance. They need to love and be loved. According to (Maslow, 1954) include the giving and receiving of affection. SAFETY NEEDS: As soon as peoples physical needs have satisfied, they will chase higher level needs, such as safety needs. Safety needs are determined by the need for security and protection from physical and emotion harm. Safety needs include: personal security, financial security, health and well-being, and a safety net or insurance for accidents/illness and the adverse impacts. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Are the lowest level of needs, from the (Fig 1) above which are the most basic needs for people. Physiological needs are also measured the needs for human survival. If these needs are not met, people cannot continue to function. Physiological needs include: breathing, homeostasis, water, sleep, food, excretion, and sex. According to (Sarah Steve 2002, p175)the theory engrossed criticism regarding its principle that individuals work on satisfying needs at a higher level only once all lower- level needs have been met. Also major problem facing the theory is how to measure needs, both in terms of how powerfully they are felt and of how someone knows they have been met. Furthermore, the theory is not easy to apply directly to work because need are not met through one source. HYGIENE THEORY: According to (Herzberg et al 1959) proposed his Two-Factor Theory of Human Motivation, known as Motivation-Hygiene theory. Hygiene theory is based on the principle that things people come across satisfying in their jobs are not always the opposite of things they find dissatisfying. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory is based on the results of research into the factors in a workplace that lead to employee satisfaction. Herzberg made use of a survey, titled, What do people want from their jobs? to achieve insights into what workplace factors people perceived as satisfying and dissatisfying. He asked people to describe in detail which workplace factors led to satisfaction and which factors led to dissatisfaction, and then he separated the results and classified them.Fig.2and Fig.3 show the factors that led to extreme satisfaction and dissatisfaction, respectively. Fig.2 Shows Factors that led to extreme satisfaction according to Herzberg Fig.3 shows Factors that led to extreme dissatisfaction according to Herzberg According to(Robins 2001) The criticisms facing the theory, is methodology used by Herzberg does not take into account that often, when things are going well, people take the credit themselves, and when things are not , they blame others and their situation. There is on job satisfaction against which the people could rate their job. Also situational factors were not identified. Despite the criticisms the theory is a vital theory of motivation and used by managers to consider hygiene factors with regards to motivation. X and Y THEORY: Based on( McGregor, 1960)reviewed that the relationship between managers and employee could be immensely improved if the assumptions that had develop about how people behaved at work were changed from Theory X view to a Theory Y view. Basically one is positive and the other is negative. THEORY X: was based on scientific management school of thought and projected that enlarged productivity could result from breaking jobs down into small unit of work and giving workers a small range of obviously defined tasks to do. According to (Gray Stark, 1984) Employees do not like to work and want to evade work as much as possible. Employees do not want to take responsibility for the work; managers should take some actions, like convincing and supervising strategies, to help them finishing their mission. Theory X assumed that human actions are dictated by low-level needs, THEORY Y: Was based the predominant theory of management there could be no trust between management and employee. Also Small opportunity for relationship between management and employees in theory .According to (Gray Stark, 1984) employees treat work as entertainment and rest, it is natural. Employees have the ability to make creative decisions, not just managers. Theory Y assumed that human actions are determined by high-level needs. The theory X and Y can influence how motivating factors are regarded within an organisation. Theory X has to do with extrinsic rewards such as pay in order to motivate people to execute good in their job while theory Y has to do with working environment in which employees may discern intrinsic rewards in their job. EXISTENCE RELATEDNESS GROWTH THEORY: This has the similarities to Maslows needs hierarchy. Alderfer C.P. extended and simplified Maslows hierarchy into a shorter set of three needs: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) Theory. (Alderfer, 1969) EXISTENCE NEEDS: According to (Hollyforde Whiddett 2002) Refers Existence needs as our concern with basic material subsistence motivators and size of how satisfied this need is therefore mostly stated in conditions of what one person has in relation to others. Existence needs, is based on various forms of material and physiological needs. RELATEDNESS NEEDS: Refers to the  motivation we have in support of maintaining interpersonal relationships GROWTH NEEDS: Refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development. Relate to personal creativity and productivity. According to (Sarah Steve 2002), the theory does not suggests how a person may meet his or needs .So managers cannot presume that everyones relationship needs will be met in the same way. Also the theory ERG theory with its three broad categories is maybe easier to deal with than the five levels of need in hierarchy of needs theory. EXPECTANCY THEORY: Vroom suggests that this theory is Based on the principle that people expect particular actions to achieve a desired result and that the desired result is something worth striving for or avoiding. Vroom does not give attention to on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes. According to (Vroom, 1964) identifies two terms the theory. 1. Expectancy: means the stronger the assurance that an act will be followed by particular outcome, the stronger the expectancy is considered to be 2. Valence: Means affective orientations toward particular outcome either positive or negative. Theory expectancy and valence of Vroom concentrated on extrinsic outcomes rather than intrinsic ones. Based on research expectancy and valence are not as distinct from each other as Vroom recommended .And one the key criticisms is that the theory was tested as if it was based on behavioural and attitudinal predictions across rather than within persons. Furthermore, expectancy theory accommodates multiple work outcomes in forecasting motivation and predicts motivation to work hard to earn the merit pay will be low if expectancy low (Schermerhorn J. et al 1997) GOAL-SETTING THEORY: The theory is based on the principle that individuals are motivated to achieve the successful accomplishment of challenging goal. According to (Locke, 1968) based his result on three main conclusions. 1: The more hard goals result in higher level of performance than easy goal 2: The specific goals produce higher levels of performance than general goals. 3: The behavioural intentions influence the choices people make. The Goal -Setting theory is helpful to many managers because much of people management is particularly about performance against goals. Theory has great relevance for managers. According to (Robins, 2001) Implies that Goal Setting theory is restricted to those cultures that match the ones in which the research was carried out. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THEORY: The theory is based on locus of control. Locus of Control refers to an individuals perception about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life. According to (Rotter, 1966) invented the internal -external dimension to determine locus of control. Based on the extent to which people feel they are in control of the situations that engulfed them and also the extent to which they are convinced of directing events 1. External control: when individual feels that result of his or her actions is as the result of chance, luck as under the powerful others. 2. Internal control: When individual perceives that the occurrence is contingent upon his own behaviour. The Internal and External theory has been criticised for its centre of attention on the Internal-external dimension only as on personality variable .Besides that the theory is useful when considering motivation issues at individual level. ACHIEVEMENT THEORY: The theory is based the needs that can be classed as either Achievement(nAch), Affiliation(nAff) or Power(nPow) .Also theory is based on three factors research into behaviour in achievement-oriented activities. 1: when individual expects to receive unmistakable feedback on the marks of his or her action. 2: When individual feels liable for the outcome success or failure. 3: When individual feels a little level of uncertainty or risk in the activity Achievement theory does not explore why some people enjoyment a challenge and others fear failure. Achievement theory was not specifically about work. The theory is useful when considering why individuals react different to achieving tough goals and why they react to failure in individual ways (Sarah Steve 2002).McClelland recommends that top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need for affiliation. Sunil R. Cited (Kreitner kinicki 1998) JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY This theory is based on how to design a job so that it is motivating to individual. Also the theory deals with how individual responds to complex and challenging tasks. According to (Hackman Oldham 1976) job characteristics theory proposed that individuals intrinsic motivation is affected by psychological states: 1: Experienced meaningfulness of the work: The extent individuals perceive the job as meaningful and valuable. 2: Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work:-the extent individual feels personally accountable and responsible for the outcome of work done. 3: Knowledge of the result of the activities:-the extent individual knows, and understands on continuous basis how successfully he or she is performing the work Also theory has five job dimensions 1: Skill variety-this has to with number of type of skill and talents of individual. 2: Task identity-this has to with work at hand and job completion 3: task significance- this has to with job considerable impact on lives or work of other people. 4: Autonomy -All about individual in setting up the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. (Freedom and independence at work environment). 5: Feedback-All about individual getting direct and clear result about the effectiveness of his or her performance The theory is one of the few motivation theories specific to an organisational environment and has plenty of practical application. Theory centre of attention is on facilitating0 high internal work motivation. Hackman and Oldman based their theory on motivating individual through job design. CONTRIBUTIONS: According to (Whittington Evans 2005) The Hierarchy of Needs theory proposed by Maslow has been identified as a major influencing factor in the growth of other motivation and management work, such as that of McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y) and Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene theory. It has been generally applied as a basis for much research into, among other things, workforce commitment, job satisfaction and management theory (Stum, 2001). Goal-Setting Theory by Locke has been acknowledged the best goals and dispute facing management environment and Achievement theory by McClelland has identified problems facing motive to achieve success in management work. (Sarah Steve 2002).Expectancy theory has been used to identify job satisfaction, occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job, and the effort that one might expand at management work. Internal and External control theory by Rotter has enhanced the concept of persistence (locus of control) in management work. The job char acteristics theory relies on workers insight of the job dimensions for the accomplishment of the psychological states that lead to increased motivation. APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION TO FACILITIES MANAGEMENT Facilities management regularly deals with identifying relations that humans have with their environment. According to (Smith et al., 1997) the rates of pay had very little influence on participants job satisfaction and subsequent work motivation. Some affiliation can be made at this point to Maslows lowest levels of his hierarchy of needs physiological and safety needs. Maslow argued that individuals can only move up the hierarchy of needs to the higher levels of belongingness/love, esteem and finally self-actualisation, once the lower levels had been achieved; however, the results demonstrated in this study suggest that ancillary staff can be motivated and achieve higher levels of Maslows hierarchy without having their physiological and safety needs completely fulfilled. Individuals can only move up the hierarchy of needs to the higher levels of belongingness/love, esteem and finally self-actualisation, once the lower levels had been achieved; on the other hand, the results demons trated in this study suggest that facilities managers can motivate their staff and achieve higher levels of Maslows hierarchy without having their physiological and safety needs completely fulfilled. McGregors Theory X and y focused on managements assumptions about employees. Theory X and Y describe the average worker from management perspective and suggest methods by which facilities manager can get the best out of worker. Herzberg studies concentrated on satisfaction at work. Herzberg came to a conclusion that certain factors tended to lead to job satisfaction.(motivators),while others led to frequently to dissatisfaction(Hygiene factors).these factor are related to job context they are concerned with job environment as an extrinsic to the job itself. Shane, S., 2001. Technology opportunities and new firm creation. Management Science 47 9, pp. 1173-1181. LATEST IDEAS ON MOTIVATION THEORY First of all, fields of management background study like leadership, decision making and organization plan persist to develop conceptually speculative developments focusing on work motivation have not held in reserve speed. These changes can have a philosophical manipulate on how companies challenge to attract, retain and motivate their employees in labour market. JOB DESIGN: This is about changing the content or process of job to increase job satisfaction and performance. This is usually easier for new organisational or new business unit. Furthermore, most organisations find themselves designing as the result of organisational change and to motivate their Staff. Job design is relating to job characteristics theory, suggests job should be design in such a way as to maximise intrinsic motivation. (Sarah Steve 2002) EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION: This gives managers strategies, to promotes positive improvement in organizations particularly motivation and performance improvement o f employees. For organization to improve well, messages should be designed in such a way as to maximise motivation. Effective communication strategies have strong effect to motivation of employees. (Sarah Steve 2002) OBJECTIVCE- SETTING: This is important to managers to focus individuals work efforts. It is important to commit employee with goals to motivate them. Most organisations applied Management by Objective (MBO) to motivate their employee. This is relating to Goal-setting, suggests individuals tend to produce higher levels of performance when they have specific goal. (Sarah Steve 2002) MANAGING VIRTUAL TEAMS: Is made of group people who regularly work mutually dependent for joint purpose across time, distance and organization. So motivating people to apply for jobs in virtual teams is one of the latest ideas. CONCULSIONS Motivational techniques, therefore, are useful to teachers, leaders, parents, employers, and almost anyone. The key is in understanding that you are not motivating someone else. Instead, you are simply providing a circumstance that triggers that person to be motivated. However, The developments in motivation and management theory. (Whittington Evans 2005) conclude that the road to building high commitment organisations requires the solid foundation laid by Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg. Motivation theories can therefore offer guidance to anyone interest in motivational issues. Motivation theories discussed above can help mangers consider how and why people are motivated. For example, Hierarchy of need theory may help manager figures out where someone is in term of the satisfaction his or her short and long term needs -which may in turn influence how they seek to create the situation that may be the most motivating. Motivation theories discussed were based on work related environment s. However the can be applied to help individuals understand human behaviour at work. This literature review also emphasized the important of motivation theories to facilities manager with regards to working environments. Also provide frameworks enable facilities manager to manage their working environment. Finally, one of the challenge facing researchers into motivation, it cannot be seen.

Monday, August 19, 2019

Analysis of Royal Caribbean Internationals Operations in Singapore Ess

1. Introduction Deep-sea passenger transportation are amongst the most rapidly growing and evolving sectors in the hospitality industry(Wie, 2004, Douglas et al., 2010). As such, there underscores the need for strategy development to ensure the long-term success of firms in this industry. This report would focus on Royal Caribbean International's operations in Singapore, and analyze it based on its external and internal environments, while concluding with a recommendation of strategies that could be adopted as part of the organization's long-term strategic trajectory. Founded in 1968, the firm is part of the Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. which provides one-stop vacation services that includes hotel, dining and entertainment. Additionally, land tours, stopovers and airport transfer services have also been offered in recent years to maximize the customer experience(Royal Caribbean International, n.d.). 2. External Analysis 2.1 PESTLE Analysis Various academics have highlighted the critical role that the PESTLE framework plays in aiding organizations to analyze its external environment(Johnson et al., 2012; Senior and Swailes, 2010; Gomez-Mejia and Balkin, 2011). Political: Owing to the welcoming attitude maintained towards foreign firms, low levels of corruption, stable political climate, and good relations with neighboring countries (MarketLine, 2013), there is little political risk faced in Singapore. Economy: Singapore's economy is relatively stable and growing, albeit being slightly affected by global economic woes. As a whole, there are low levels of unemployment and GDP per capita is high(Worldbank,2013), hence implying more disposable income that nationals have to spend. Nonetheless, spurred on by soaring ... ... Recruiting in the Cruise Industry', Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, 9: 17-32 Gibson, P. and Papathanassis, A. (2010): 'The Cruise Industry – Emerging Issues, Problems and Solutions: Review of the 2nd International Cruise Conference, Plymouth, UK, 18-20 February 2010', International Journal of Tourism Research, 12: 405-7 Thor, J.C. and Barclay, L.A. (2012): 'Art Auctions on the High Seas', Journal of Critical Incidents, 5: 59-61 Wei, Y., Samiee, S., and Lee, R.P. (2014): 'The Influence of Organic Organizational Cultures, Market Responsiveness, and Product Strategy on Firm Performance in An Emerging Market', Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 42: 49-70 Wilson, R.H. (2012): 'The Legal Strategy of the Cruise Industry: An Effective Use of Terms and Conditions to Manage Disputes', Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 53(4): 347-56

Sunday, August 18, 2019

The Corruption in William Shakespeares Hamlet Essay -- Shakespeare Ha

The Corruption in William Shakespeare's Hamlet Central to the plot and the themes developed in Shakespeare's Hamlet, are the varying elements of corruption which occur during the play. This is echoed in Marcellus' famous comment of 'Something is rotten in the state of Denmark,' when Hamlet is beckoned away by the Ghost (1.4.90). As the play continues and the story enfolds, it becomes apparent that there truly is 'something rotten in the state of Denmark,' and rather that it is not just one 'something,' but many things. The most obvious example of corruption is the story of the late King Hamlet's murder by his brother Claudius. When Prince Hamlet goes to speak with the Ghost he learns that his father's death was not an accident, as was officially reported, but instead that it was a 'Murder most foul . . . strange and unnatural,' (1.5.27-28) committed by King Hamlet's brother who 'Now wears his crown' (1.5.39). While this act was committed before the play even begins, it sets the stage for all the events which follow, descending into a state just as corrupt as this first crime. A continuance of the murder of the King, is the soon following marriage of the widowed Queen to none other than Claudius, the murderer. While the Queen does not know that Claudius killed her former husband, her part in the relationship is not wholly innocent. Her mourning seems minimal and her lustfulness maximal, for 'But two months dead' (1.2.138) was the King before 'She married . . . With such dexterity to incestuous sheets' (1.2.156-157). This image of a corrupted or damned royalty is strongly played up, especially by Hamlet, who recognizes this new union of Claudius and his mother as incredibly demeaning to the state of Denmark, and a ... ...n guilty head, affecting the whole state of Denmark. By using murder and deception to gain the throne, as soon as Claudius assumes it, it is irrevocably tainted. Marrying the brother of her dead husband, the Queen's bed becomes 'A couch for luxury and damned insect' (1.5.83). The games and favors played to please the King, the spying, the secrets kept, and the lies told, all come back with a sentence of death. Even the fight between Hamlet and Laertes is not fair, with a poison tipped weapon and a poisoned drink, conspiracies of the King to ensure Hamlet's death, but which claim the life of the Queen, Laertes, and himself also. All of these events culminate in Act V to eventually destroy the royalty of Denmark with no member surviving the duration of the play, proving for any doubting member of the audience that something truly was 'rotten in the state of Denmark.'

Accounting :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When most people go to college they think of what major would be the most interesting, and most exciting. However there are a few brave souls who want to be bored out of their mind but learn the language of business. For those few the major of accounting calls to them. Those men and women who choose accounting as their major will spend many semesters trying to figure out what the hell the professors are talking about when they go into managing and valuing inventories for companies. This one area of accounting is one of the most important parts to understand, because of the vast amounts of money companies have raped up in inventories. So sit back and get ready to be bored because we are entering the world of accounting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Inventories are asset items held for sale in the ordinary course of business or good that will be used or consumed in the production of goods to be sold. That sounds very interesting doesn’t it? Well let’s think about that for a second. Companies like Wal-Mart have billions of dollars put into inventories and they need to make sure that it is properly accounted for so they do not become the next ENRON of the world. Wal-Mart gets their inventory in a ready to sell state. That means no extra cost goes into getting it ready to put on the shelf. So when a Wal-Mart accountant takes in invoices of merchandise purchased the price Wal-Mart paid was the amount that goes into their inventory account. However for companies that are manufacturing business, like Boeing, they will have three inventory accounts called, raw materials, work in process, and finished goods. Assigning cost into the inventory account is a little different for manufacturing companies. The cost assigned to good and materials on hand but not yet placed into production is reported as raw materials inventory. Raw materials include things like plastics for sex toys or steel for skyscrapers, did I say sex in an accounting paper?

Saturday, August 17, 2019

Munroe Prayer book

IntroductionPrayer is an essential part of a Christian’s life. Too often, however, Christians are either unaware of what they should be doing or they do not have a good grasp of what prayer truly means for their lives as Christians in this world. Prayer is also essential in communicating and relating with Christian brothers and sisters. The phrase â€Å"I’ll pray for you† is used very often but is rarely done. If only Christians would understand the purpose and the power of prayer, they would do what they say more often.The exploration of the purpose and power of prayer motivated Dr. Munroe to write about the topic and help Christians understand why they need to pray and be in touch with God.The Purpose and Priority of PrayerThe Lord Jesus Christ came to save humankind and enable the Church to become his partners in establishing His kingdom on earth. When He came to the earth, he healed the sick, He made the blind see, made the cripple walk and even raised the de ad. Today, more than ever, He works through the Church to show the world His love and His compassion. Christians therefore are part of His plan in bringing about the changes that he promised.Dr. Munroe said that the act of prayer is an affirmation that Christians do believe, affirm and participate in the unfolding plan of God. Prayer is a way for them to connect with God and help intercede and pray for the expansion of God’s kingdom on earth. Furthermore, as Christians, the Lord Jesus Christ has given us authority and prayer is an expression of this authority. In fact, he said that â€Å"prayer is earthly license for heavenly interference.†As the partners and friends of God, we, like Abraham and other persons of God before us, could communicate, ask favors, and intercede in behalf of those we love before God. With prayer, we can become intercessors and mediators before God since this is part of the authority that Christ has given us by virtue of the sacrifice He made o n the cross and based on the authority He has bestowed upon us under the new covenant of grace.Preparing for PrayerFor many people, prayer seems to be the last resort in dealing with difficult situations in life. Even Christians sometimes only approach God when they need money or they need help out of difficult situations. In this case, sometimes prayer becomes a one-way street that a Christian enters into because of his needs. This is the correct way of treating prayer. Instead, Dr. Munroe admonishes Christians to use prayer to enter God’s presence. Sure, God longs to bestow His blessings on His children, but more than that, He also desires a close relationship with them.For Christians who feel like their prayers only bounce on the ceiling, Dr. Munroe provides several principles in preparing oneself to enter the presence of God. He encourages believers to cultivate the kind of faith that is expectant for God to answer. However, he cautions against simply praying without doin g anything. He draws upon several biblical verses and principles that show that action should be in partnership with faith and prayer. He offers ten steps to preparedness in prayer. Although such steps might seem formulaic, it helps new believers to prepare themselves.As they mature in the faith, however, they can improvise and to state it proverbially, they can take the plunge and dive into the life of prayer. Dr. Munroe also encourages Christians to practice the â€Å"God kind of faith†. This faith is active and not passive. The persons who exhibit this kind of faith actively seeks ways in which they can participate in God’s will.Principles of PrayerIn Part III of Dr. Munroe’s book, he expounded on different principles related to prayer that can be gleaned from the Bible. He explained the significance of Jesus’ model of prayer. Although Jesus enjoyed the company of His disciples and the accolades of the public that He preached to, he nonetheless cultiva ted an attitude of prayer that sought to establish His connection with God the Father. This expression of His relationship was foremost among His priorities.The Lord’s prayer also received significant attention from Dr. Munroe’s books and he explained its significance for Christians today. Instead of perpetually asking God for favors like a genie in a bottle, Christians need to understand that prayer is essentially an expression of the relationship that they have with God.Dr. Munroe also offered twelve action steps to prayer, which is meant to help believers actively participate in seeking God’s answer to prayers. Although such steps may seem to be a simple list, they can help believers focus themselves on the task of praying and seeking God’s will.  In addition to this, Dr. Munroe also listed down several hurdles to answered prayers as well as the hindrances. These hurdles may be in regards to the level of faith of the Christian praying or because of w rong motives. In order to deal with these hurdles and hindrances, the Christian should put himself right with God and examine his intentions and his desires in seeking for the prayer items.The Power of PrayerBecause of the authority that God has given to Christ and to the authority that Christ has given to His followers, we have do have power through prayer. The power of the word and of the name of Jesus in prayer was expounded by Dr. Munroe. Naming things that believers desire in accordance to God’s word is an important part of prayer. And yet, even if some desires are not uttered, the Holy Spirit enables believers to pray with â€Å"groans that words could not express.†Yet, through the name of Jesus, believers do have access to the throne of grace. Fasting is also another way for believers to empower their prayer lives. Through fasting, believers can focus their energies and discipline their bodies. It is a way to empower one’s prayer and help discern what God wills for one’s life and for the world.ConclusionPrayer seems to an underrated part of Christians’ lives. In this regard, Dr. Munroe provides a good handbook on prayer. The issues relating to the prayer lives of Christians, the principles behind it, as well as the different hurdles and hindrances were explored in the book. This way, Christians would understand better the purpose and the power of prayer and they will be able to claim these for themselves.As the world proceeds with its breakneck speed and the increasing demands of work and other pressures on the lives of Christians and pre-Christians alike, Dr. Munroe’s book can help Christians change their perspective on prayer and start practicing it so that they, too, can participate in God’s plan for this world.

Friday, August 16, 2019

The Main Purpose of Farce

The main purpose of farce is to make people laugh, so as a result the laughter connects people and becomes a means of agreement among them. Ratajczakowa distinguishes five types of texts according to their level of comedy and association with farce or comedy:The low comical that uses only means of farce to induce laughter;The moderately that uses using humour as a way of expression and intellectualisation;The highly comical that limits humour and uses various aesthetic categories to bring a smile and emotion to the addressee;The tragicomic that connects non comical matters with comical representations which makes the audience confused and evokes contrasting emotions;The non comical abandoning humour that does not even try to evoke a pleasant mood. Further distinctions between comedy and farce are noticeable at the level of structure as well as the rules of creation. The author of a comedy could present the ability to create based on the principles of drama. Also, comedy marks the probability and avoidance of absurdity, so it represents a closed entity with an ordered storyline. Surprise is the main source of its humour. Farce is funded on none of these principles, since it is much more independent, disordered, and amorphic. It is a way of expressing mockery of a lower class of the world, so that the body language is the language of farce. With time, these two genres have evolved in a complex relation to each other, it is even believed that without farce's vulgarity and carnality, comedy would be tedious. 1.3. Physical humour With time, salacious jokes and physical humour have been added to the concept of low comedy, so the concept of physical humour has become extremely popular among comedians. The so-called â€Å"slapstick comedy† is based on violent acts, but presented in a hilarious form. Many slapstick comedians perform without speaking, because their performance was supposed to be more about amusing movement than verbal content. For this reason, they have to be extremely expressive. The contemporary name of this kind of physical

Thursday, August 15, 2019

Victorian Era

The Victorian Era During the Victorian Era, social classes of England were newly reforming, and fomenting. There was a churning upheaval of the old hierarchical order, and the middle classes were steadily growing. Added to that, the upper classes' composition was changing from simply hereditary aristocracy to a combination of nobility and an emerging wealthy commercial class. The definition of what made someone a gentleman or a lady was, therefore, changing at what some thought was an alarming rate. By the end of the century, it was common that a gentleman was someone who had a liberal public (private) school education, no matter what his antecedents might be. There continued to be a large and generally disgruntled working class, wanting and slowly getting reform and change. Conditions of the working class were still bad, though, through the century, three reform bills gradually gave the vote to most males over the age of twenty-one. Contrasting to that was the horrible reality of child labor which persisted throughout the period. When a bill was passed stipulating that children under nine could not work in the textile industry, this in no way applied to other industries, nor did it in any way curb rampant teenaged prostitution. The Victorian Era was also a time of tremendous scientific progress and ideas. Darwin took his Voyage of the Beagle, and posited the Theory of Evolution. The Great Exhibition of 1851 took place in London, lauding the technical and industrial advances of the age, and strides in medicine and the physical sciences continued throughout the century. The radical thought associated with modern psychiatry began with men like Sigmund Feud toward the end of the era, and radical economic theory, developed by Karl Marx and his associates, began a second age of revolution in mid-century. The ideas of Marxism, socialism, feminism churned and bubbled along with all else that happened. The dress of the early Victorian era was similar to the the Georgian age. Women wore corsets, balloonish sleeves and crinolines in the middle 1840's. The crinoline thrived, and expanded during the 50's and 60's, and into the 70's, until, at last, it gave way to the bustle. The bustle held its own until the 1890's, and became much smaller, going out altogether by the dawning of the twentieth century. For men, following Beau Brummell's example, stove-pipe pants were the fashion at the beginning of the century. Their ties, known then as cravats, and the various ways they might be tied could change, the styles of shirts, jackets, and hats also, but trousers have remained. Throughout the century, it was stylish for men to wear facial hair of all sizes and descriptions. The clean shaven look of the Regency was out, and mustaches, mutton-chop sideburns, Piccadilly Weepers, full beards, and Van Dykes were the order of the day. Due to the lack of modern technology that we have today such as televisions and the internet, the Victorian era (the era in which Queen Victoria reigned, this was between 1837 and 1901 was renowned for famous for the short stories that the authors of the time wrote. The birth of the railway also took place during the Victorian era and as one would expect, many people used it for transportation over long distances. There were no televisions so at times of boredom and during these long train journeys the people of the time depended solely on books and short stories for entertainment. The Ghost story genre proved to be most popular amongst the Victorian people. At the beginning of the nineteenth century in Britain, religious faith and the sciences were generally seen to be in beautiful accordance. This harmony between science and faith, mediated by some form of theology of nature, continued to be the mainstream position for most men of science right up to the 1860’s, at least. But it did come under threat. Many scientists questioned the literal meaning of the Genesis and opposed to the authoritarianism of organized Christian religion. Charles Darwin was the one, who with his Origins of the Species in 1859, proved things that could not be tolerated by the Church. It attracted widespread interest on publication. The book was controversial because it contradicted religious beliefs that underlay the then current theories of biology, and it generated much discussion on scientific, philosophical, and religious grounds. Of course a longer period had to pass to accept Darwin’s ideas, but it did affect the Christian mind, it did raise questions about the institution of the Church. The values that were based on religion were shaken greatly as well and the roots of the 20th century’s search for new values could be originated from here. Attitudes toward values and morals in those times also depended on, which social class a person belonged to. As the population increased, the gap between the lower and upper classes grew larger and also the differences in social behavior. Lower working classes struggled with everyday life, large families often did not have anything to eat, and children had to go working from an early age. There, the morals were drawn to the background. Even though, every felony was punished strictly, people often ended up stealing, robbing and murdering. Cities were full of slums, hygiene was non-existent and the drinking water spread diseases. Among these circumstances there was one rule that existed: to survive the day! Opposing the upper classes’ primness, prostitution and child labor was not scorned as a livelihood for the common people. Society as a whole, was called and often talked about in connection with the Victorian Era, did not help them, did not do anything for them, only despised them. Victorian values included a strict moral code and an obsession with social status. Upper classes always liked to lead their life in an exemplary way, regarded the morals highly and lived accordingly. Their occupation and social standing was largely determined by family background and social connections. We have to take into consideration that the Victorian era was the one when educated and wealthy people knew that the period they were living in is great and society, if everyone in it lived according to the Victorian values, could be happy. Although by looking back at the way they treated these values, most of them seem hypocritical. In their life religion, family, home, wealth and primness played an important role and proud as they were of themselves of belonging to these great times, rejected anyone whose life was not based on these things. They were the lucky ones that were educated and could easily afford forming opinions about the rest of the society, making references to morals, making up their own and forming the old ones as well. The Victorian era became notorious for employing young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps. Child labor played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship, Charles Dickens for example worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in debtor's prison. The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs and low wages. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children. Agile boys were employed by the chimney sweeps; small children were employed to scramble under machinery to retrieve cotton bobbins; and children were also employed to work in coal mines to crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods. 7] Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid 18th Century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter, while domestic servants worked 80 hour weeks, children worked from 12 to 16 hours a day; they often began w orking at the age of six or seven. Children had to be beaten to keep them from falling asleep while at work; in spite of this, many failed to keep awake and were mutilated or killed. Parents had to submit to the infliction of these atrocities upon their children, because they themselves were in a desperate plight. Craftsmen had been thrown out of work by the machines; rural laborers were compelled to migrate to the towns by the Enclosure Acts, which used Parliament to make landowners richer by making peasants destitute; trade unions were illegal until 1824; the government employed agents provocateurs to try to get revolutionary sentiments out of wage-earners, who were then deported or hanged. Such was the first effect of machinery in England. Children as young as three were put to work. A high number of children also worked as prostitutes.. In coal mines children began work at the age of five and generally died before the age of 25. Many children worked 16 hour days. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation. A royal commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10 hour working days. By 1900, there were 1. 7 million child laborers reported in American industry under the age of fifteen. The number of children under the age of 15 who worked in industrial jobs for wages climbed to 2 million in 1910. The accepted reasoning was that the career for women was marriage. To get ready for courtship and marriage a girl was groomed like a racehorse. In addition to being able to sing, play an instrument and speak a little French or Italian, the qualities a young Victorian gentlewoman needed, were to be innocent, virtuous, biddable, dutiful and be ignorant of intellectual opinion. A wealthy wife was supposed to spend her time reading, sewing, receiving guests, going visiting, letter writing, seeing to the servants and dressing for the part as her husband's social representative. For the very poor of Britain things were quite different. Fifth hand clothes were usual. Servants ate the pickings left over in a rich household. The average poor mill worker could only afford the very inferior stuff, for example rancid bacon, tired vegetables, green potatoes, tough old stringy meat, tainted bread, porridge, cheese, herrings or kippers. The Catholicism of the Oxford Movement, the Evangelical movement, the spread of the Broad Church, and the rise of Utilitarianism, socialism, Darwinism, and scientific Agnosticism, were all in their own ways characteristically Victorian; as were the prophetic writings of Carlyle and Ruskin, the criticism of Arnold, and the empirical prose of Darwin and Huxley; as were the fantasy of George MacDonald and the realism of George Eliot and George Bernard Shaw. One could say that Queen Victoria personified the spirit of nineteenth-century England; she was Queen of the United Kingdom, Great Britain, and Ireland as well as Empress of India. She put the â€Å"Victorian† in the Victorian Era.